History of Adult and Community Education, 1910-1920

Running Head:  History of Adult and Community Education, 1910-1920

History of Adult and Community Education, 1910-1920

Joe Morris

Ball State University

EDAC 631

September 14, 2014

I commented on the research of Joseph Haynes and Darcey Mitschelen 

HISTORY OF ADULT AND COMMUNITY EDUCATION, 1910-1920

History of Adult and Community Education, 1910-1920

“Live as if you were to die tomorrow, learn as if you were to live forever.”

(Gandhi, Unknown) 

It was a fascinating, yet tumultuous time to be alive in the United States from 1910 to 1920, the decade on which I will focus my Adult Education history research.  During this time, people experienced a societal transformation.  There are numerous societal landmark events to report as thus:

·        American Industry grew at an unprecedented rate. Henry Ford had just introduced his Model T automobile and soon thereafter, added assembly belts to his revolutionary production line.  (Bak, 2003)

·        The largest influx of immigrants arrived in America, most of them coming through Ellis Island in New York City.  (Burns, 1999)

·        The United States entered World War I in 1916

·        Moving pictures were created and Harry Houdini was performing world-enthralling escapes. The country moved to strange new music called Jazz and Ragtime.

·        Huge strides were made in the Women’s Movement and the Labor Movement.  (Burns, 1999)

Bak, R. (2003). Henry and Edsel: The Creation of the Ford Empire. In R. Back, Henry and Edsel: The Creation of the Ford Empire (pp. 54-63). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Burns, R. (Director). (1999). New York, The People and The Power [Motion Picture].

HISTORY OF ADULT AND COMMUNITY EDUCATION, 1910-1920

Highlights

I shall write about my historical findings using the following interpretations:  Celebrationist History (paying tribute to an individual/institution…illustrating major milestones and accomplishments), Narrative History (adding the how and what behind the facts, but not the why) and Critical History (to retell a story from a particular perspective). (Brockett, The Profession and Practice of Adult Education, 1997)

The decade 1910-1920 is encapsulated within a formative movement in adult education which began in the 1870’s and stretched into the 1930’s.  “The period was categorized by industrialization and urbanization which contributed to the emergence of the organized working class, a militant women’s movement, and the struggle for the right to vote.  This resulted in the development of independent adult educational activities by socialist, communist, and anarchist political parties, together with the trade unions and the women’s movement.  In opposition, Conservative and liberal parties responded to these challenges.  They enlisted the organizational power of the Catholic and Protestant churches to promote the development of new institutional forms for the provision of adult education which resulted in the creation of university extensions, the arts and crafts movement, and public libraries.  Civic education became a key theme in adult education so that people could access the right to vote.” (Hake, 2010)  The Progressive education movement began to dominate the national scene as a response to our increasingly industrialized society. “This pragmatic approach to adult education was largely identified with John Dewey, from which the following major philosophical principles can be distinguished:  (a.) a broadened view of education that goes well beyond liberal education (b.) a focus on learners and their needs

HISTORY OF ADULT AND COMMUNITY EDUCATION, 1910-1920

and experiences rather than on predetermined content (c.) the use of scientific methodology incorporating problem-solving, activity, and experience-based approaches to instruction (d.) a shift from teacher as authority figure to teacher as a facilitator of learning, and (e.) education as an instrument of social action and social change.” (Brockett, 1997)  

Brockett, R. G. (1997). The Profession and Practice of Adult Education. In R. G. Brockett, The Profession and Practice of Adult Education (pp. 63-66). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Brockett, R. G. (1997). The Profession and Practice of Adult Education. In R. G. Brockett, The Profession and Practice of Adult Education (pp. 35-36). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Influential Factors

Two notable educators during this decade include John Dewey, author of Democracy & Education, and Clara Wilson Stewart, founder of the Kentucky Moonlight Schools.  Dewey and Stewart represent two educators that had a significant and lasting impact on the field of Adult Education in different ways.  My research indicates that John Dewey was a philosopher practicing in urban areas at universities with transformative pragmatic/progressive ideas that impacted adult education in formal and non-formal ways.  Conversely, Stewart grew up in the rural hills of Eastern Kentucky and was motivated to start her Moonlight Schools to eradicate illiteracy among adults during her tenure as the Superintendent of Rowan County Schools in 1911.  

“Dewey continually argued that education and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place. In addition, he believed that students thrive in an environment where they are allowed to

HISTORY OF ADULT AND COMMUNITY EDUCATION, 1910-1920

experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in their own learning.” (Wikipedia, Unknown)  Dewey’s work at this time coincided with the Progressive movement in the United States.  “Examples of progressive adult education can be found in many forms, including citizenship programs, community education, cooperative extension courses, many adult basic education approaches, civic education programs (such as public issues-forums), the New School for Social Research, and many programs of the American Association for Adult Education and the Adult Education Association of the United States of America.” (Brockett, 1997)

Ms. Cora Wilson Stewart started the Moonlight Schools in Rowan County, Kentucky, in 1911 to address the pervasive problem of illiteracy among poor rural adults.  The term Moonlight refers to the fact that all of the classes were held at night so that adults could attend.  A few years earlier, Ms. Stewart had become the first woman superintendent of schools.  “Since Cora had contact with all of the teachers in Rowan county, she became keenly aware that there were mothers who could not write to children – grown and living in other states, mothers who could not read the letters they received, and who walked miles to bring these letters to Miss Cora to open and answer for them. 

Cora and her committee of teachers canvassed the Rowan county districts and determined that there might be as many as 300 adult learners that would take advantage of the after-hours learning. 

Nearly 1,200 adults attempted to attend on the first night.  With the success of the first school, other schools opened in Eastern Kentucky and then additional schools opened in Georgia,

HISTORY OF ADULT AND COMMUNITY EDUCATION, 1910-1920

Alabama, South Carolina, and Louisiana.  President Herbert Hoover designated Cora as the Director of the National Illiteracy Commission.”  (Benschoten, 1931)

Benschoten, M. (1931). Kentucky Explorer Magazine. Retrieved from Kentucky Explorer Magazine: http://www.kentuckystewarts.com/WilliamG/CoraStory.htm

Brockett, R. G. (1997). The Profession and Practice of Adult Education. In R. G. Brockett, The Profession and Practice of Adult Education (pp. 35-36). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Wikipedia. (Unknown). Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey#On_education

Percentage of persons 14 years old and over who were illiterate (unable to read or write in any language), by race and nativity: 1870 to 1979 (Snyder)

Year	Total	White			Black and Other
		Total	Native	Foreign Born
1910	7.7	5.0	3.0	12.7	30.5
1920	6.0	4.0	2.0	13.1	23.0

There were many events during the decade that served as catalysts for dramatic social change.  I have chosen two that will illustrate a time when grass-roots leaders educated adults and connected with legislators that resulted in changing laws for the greater good of the people.  “One horrible tragedy that ultimately resulted in sweeping workplace safety legislation was the New York City Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire of 1911, in which 146 garment workers, most of them women (ages 14-80), died needlessly. Because of the tragedy, garment workers walked out all over New York City in the first-ever general strike.  Against long odds, the grassroots adult education leaders of the rebellion taught their peers how the legislative process works informally at rallies and in small meetings.  Representative Al Smith (who would later be elected as governor of New York four times) argued on the floor of the state legislature and new sweeping

HISTORY OF ADULT AND COMMUNITY EDUCATION, 1910-1920

workplace regulations were adopted that abolished sweatshops.” (Burns, New York, The Power and The People, 1999). 

Embedded within the Women’s Suffrage Movement was the fight for the right to be educated about and to have access to birth control.  The work of Margaret Sanger around birth control was a catalyst to educate women on reproductive rights.  “Some countries in Northwestern Europe had more liberal policies towards contraception than the United States at the time.  When Sanger visited a Dutch birth control clinic in 1915, she learned about diaphragms and became convinced that they were a more effective means of contraception than the suppositories and douches that she had been distributing back in the United States. Diaphragms were generally unavailable in the United States, so Sanger and others began importing them from Europe, in defiance of United States law.^{”  (Chester, 1992)}   Ms. Sanger opened her own clinic in Brooklyn and began distributing information and diaphragms.  It was during this time she founded the American Birth Control League.  She was arrested on more than one occasion. However, the publicity of her trials attracted large donors to her cause.  “The founding principles of the ABCL were as follows:

We hold that children should be (1) Conceived in love; (2) Born of the mother's conscious desire; (3) And only begotten under conditions which render possible the heritage of health. Therefore, we hold that every woman must possess the power and freedom to prevent conception except when these conditions can be satisfied.” (Sanger)

HISTORY OF ADULT AND COMMUNITY EDUCATION, 1910-1920

Other organizations that were born out of the necessity to educate the adult population during this time included the New York Urban League and The People’s Institute in New York City. 

Burns, R. (Director). (1999). New York, The People and The Power [Motion Picture].

Chester, E. (1992). Women of Valor: Margaret Sanger and the Birth Control Movement in America. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Snyder, T. (n.d.). National Assessment of Adult Literacy. Retrieved from nces.ed.gov: http://nces.ed.gov/naal/lit_history.asp

Sanger, M. (1921). Birth Control:  What it is, How it works, What it will do. ABCL Meeting (pp.207-208): Unknown

Implications

My research indicates that the old addages are true; necessity is the mother of invention, knowledge is power, and education leads to freedom.  When the true voice of the people is heard, it has always changed the course of history. 

Sadly, my life experience teaches me that history repeats itself.  All over America these days, politicans are attempting to reduce the number of minorities who are eligible to vote under the guise that these groups are commiting mass voter fraud.  Today, women are still fighting for reproductive rights.  Workers rights are being challenged as unions are being systematically dismantled throughout the United States. 

John Dewey and Cora Stewart were pioneers in adult education in the same decade, but in different ways.  Their theories and programs have helped people lift themselves out of poverty

HISTORY OF ADULT AND COMMUNITY EDUCATION, 1910-1920

and allowed them to participate in our democracy.  Dewey’s pragmatic progressivism has allowed, in part, learners and the demands of their environments to dictate curriculum – where the teacher is viewed as a facilitator of learning.  There is a need today to retrain our workforce so that Americans are able to remain competitive in a global economy.  Therefore, community colleges and vocational programs are flourishing nationwide.  Today, there are any number of community education programs to thwart the ongoing battle against illiteracy.  The power that the internet gives educators to reach people in rural areas is unprecedented.  Today, we benefit at looking back at the work of Dewey and Stewart, as it has great informational, insightful, and inspirational value to our progress as an educated society.  

Summary of History of Adult/Community Education

Areas

Social Background:  Industrial Expansion, Labor Movement, Women’s Movement, World War I,  and Mass Immigration

Highlights:  Progressive and Liberal Education collide, Urbanization and Industrialization lead to the formation of  Socialist, Communist, and Anarchist parties.  Catholic and Prodestant churches foster university extension systems.  Pulic libraries flourished and the Arts and Crafts movement was born.

Influential Factors:  John Dewey, pragmatic education philosopher, educator, author.  Cora Wilson Stewart founded the Moonlight Schools which helped educate thousands of illierate adults.  Workers rights are championed after the tragic Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire of 1911.  Women’s rights to birth control is sought by Margaret Sanger in New York City.

Implications:  The work of John Dewey and Cora Wilson Stewart gave power to learners to determine their curriculum and access to democracy through literacy.  Community colleges and literacy programs are flourishing as a result of their work.

 i